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Indo-Aryan languages
The Indo-Aryan or Indic languages are the dominant language family of the Indian subcontinent, spoken largely by Indo-Aryan people. They constitute a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, itself a branch of the Indo-European language family. Indo-Aryan speakers form about one half of all Indo-European speakers (approx 1.5 of 3 billion) and more than half of Indo-European languages recognized by Ethnologue.
The largest in terms of native speakers are Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu, about 240 million), Bengali (about 230 million), Punjabi (about 110 million), Marathi (about 70 million), Gujarati (about 45 million), Bhojpuri (about 40 million), Oriya (about 30 million), Sindhi (about 20 million), Nepali (about 14 million), Chittagonian (about 14 million), Sinhala (about 16 million), and Assamese (about 13 million) with a total number of native speakers of more than 900 million. Geographical distribution of the major Indo-Aryan languages. (Urdu is included under Hindi. Romani, Domari, and Lomavren language are outside the scope of the map.) HistoryIndian subcontinent
Old Indo-AryanThe earliest evidence of the group is from Vedic Sanskrit, the proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages which is used in the ancient preserved texts of the Indian subcontinent, the foundational canon of Hinduism known as the Vedas. The Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni is of similar age to the language of the Rigveda (and almost identical), but the only evidence of it is a few proper names and specialized loanwords. In about the 4th century BCE, the Vedic Sanskrit language was codified and standardized by the grammarian Panini, called “Classical Sanskrit” by convention. Middle Indo-Aryan (Prakrits)Outside the learned sphere of Sanskrit, vernacular dialects (Prakrits) continued to evolve. The oldest attested Prakrits are the Buddhist and Jain canonical languages Pali and Ardha Magadhi, respectively. By medieval times, the Prakrits had diversified into various Middle Indo-Aryan dialects. “Apabhramsa” is the conventional cover term for transitional dialects connecting late Middle Indo-Aryan with early Modern Indo-Aryan, spanning roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. Some of these dialects showed considerable literary production; the Sravakachar of Devasena (dated to the 930s) is now considered to be the first Hindi book. The next major milestone occurred with the Muslim invasions of India in the 13th–16th centuries. Under the flourishing Mughal empire, Persian became very influential as the language of prestige of the Islamic courts. However, Persian was soon displaced by Hindustani. This Indo-Aryan language is a combination with Persian elements in its vocabulary, with the grammar of the local dialects. The two largest languages that formed from Apabhramsa were Bengali and Hindustani; others include Gujarati, Oriya, Marathi, and Punjabi. New Indo-AryanDialect continuumThe Indic languages of Northern India (that includes Assam Valley as for the language Assamese) and Pakistan form a dialect continuum. What is called “Hindi” in India is frequently Standard Hindi, the Sanskrit-ized version of the colloquial Hindustani spoken in the Delhi area since the Mughals. However, the term Hindi is also used for most of the central Indic dialects from Bihar to Rajasthan. The Indo-Aryan prakrits also gave rise to languages like Gujarati, Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Nepali, Marathi, and Punjabi, which are not considered to be Hindi despite being part of the same dialect continuum. Standard Hindi-UrduIn the Hindi-speaking areas, the prestige dialect was long Braj Bhasha, but this was replaced in the 19th century by Khari Boli–based Hindustani. This state of affairs continued until the Partition of India in 1947, when Hindi continued as an official language of India and Pakistan but renamed Urdu in Pakistan. In contemporary times, there is a continuum of Hindi–Urdu, with heavily-Persianised Urdu at one end and Sanskritised Hindi at the other, although the basic grammar remains identical. Most people in India and Pakistan speak something in the middle, and this is what the term Hindustani is frequently used to mean today. Indo-Aryan superstrate in MitanniSome theonyms, proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate, suggesting that an Indo-Aryan elite imposed itself over the Hurrian population in the course of the Indo-Aryan expansion. In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are invoked. Kikkuli’s horse training text includes technical terms such as aika (eka, one), tera (tri, three), panza (pancha, five), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, nine), vartana (vartana, turn, round in the horse race). The numeral aika “one” is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian (which has “aiva”) in general. Another text has babru (babhru, brown), parita (palita, grey), and pinkara (pingala, red). Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice (vishuva) which was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called marya, the term for warrior in Sanskrit as well; note mišta-nnu (= miẓḍha,~ Sanskrit mīḍha) “payment (for catching a fugitive)” (M. Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen< Heidelberg 1986-2000; Vol. II 358). Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni royal names render Artashumara (artaššumara) as Arta-smara “who thinks of Arta/Ṛta” (Mayrhofer II 780), Biridashva (biridašṷa, biriiašṷa) as Prītāśva “whose horse is dear” (Mayrhofer II 182), Priyamazda (priiamazda) as Priyamedha “whose wisdom is dear” (Mayrhofer II 189, II378), Citrarata as citraratha “whose chariot is shining” (Mayrhofer I 553), Indaruda/Endaruta as Indrota “helped by Indra” (Mayrhofer I 134), Shativaza (šattiṷaza) as Sātivāja “winning the race price” (Mayrhofer II 540, 696), Šubandhu as Subandhu ‘having good relatives” (a name in Palestine, Mayrhofer II 209, 735), Tushratta (tṷišeratta, tušratta, etc.) as *tṷaiašaratha, Vedic Tvastr “whose chariot is vehement” (Mayrhofer, Etym. Wb., I 686, I 736). Romani languageThe Romani language is usually included in the Central Indo-Aryan languages. Romani is conservative in maintaining almost intact the Middle Indo-Aryan present-tense person concord markers, and in maintaining consonantal endings for nominal case – both features that have been eroded in most other modern languages of Central India. It shares an innovative pattern of past-tense person concord with the languages of the Northwest, such as Kashmiri and Shina. This is believed to be further proof that Romani originated in the Central region, then migrated to the Northwest. There are no known historical documents about the early phases of the Romani language. Linguistic evaluation carried out in the nineteenth century by Pott (1845) and Miklosich (1882–1888) showed that the Romani language is to be a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA), not a Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA), establishing that the ancestors of the Romani could not have left India significantly earlier than AD 1000. The principal argument favouring a migration during or after the transition period to NIA is the loss of the old system of nominal case, and its reduction to just a two-way case system, nominative vs. oblique. A secondary argument concerns the system of gender differentiation. Romani has only two genders (masculine and feminine). Middle Indo-Aryan languages (named MIA) generally had three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and some modern Indo-Aryan languages retain this old system even today. It is argued that loss of the neuter gender did not occur until the transition to NIA. Most of the neuter nouns became masculine while a few feminine, like the neuter अग्नि (agni) in the Prakrit became the feminine आग (āg) in Hindi and jag in Romani. The parallels in grammatical gender evolution between Romani and other NIA languages have been cited as evidence that the forerunner of Romani remained on the Indian subcontinent until a later period, perhaps even as late as the tenth century. ClassificationThere can be no definitive enumeration of Indic languages, as their dialects merge into one another. Named languages are therefore social constructs as much as objective ones. The major ones are illustrated here; for the details, see the dedicated articles. The classification follows Masica (1991) and Kausen (2006). DardicThe relation of this family to other Indo-Aryan languages is unclear; these languages have very different grammatical structure from that of the Classical Indo-Aryan languages. The representative languages are:
Northern Zone
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Stop series | Language(s) |
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/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /tʃ/, /k/ | Hindi, Punjabi, Dogri, Sindhi, Gujarati, Bihari, Maithili, Sinhala, Oriya, Standard Bengali, dialects of Rajasthani (except Lamani, NW. Marwari, S. Mewari) |
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /k/ | Nepali, E. and N. dialects of Bengali (Dacca, Maimansing, Rajshahi), dialects of Rajasthani (Lamani and NW. Marwari), Northern Lahnda’s Kagani, Kumauni, many West Pahari dialects (not Chamba Mandeali, Jaunsari, or Sirmauri) |
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /tʃ/, /k/ | Marathi, Konkani, certain W. Pahari dialects (Bhadrawahi, Bhalesi, Padari, Simla, Satlej, maybe Kulu), Kashmiri |
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /tʃ/, /tʂ/, /k/ | Shina, Bashkarik, Gawarbati, Phalura, Kalasha, Khowar, Shumashti, Kanyawali, Pashai |
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /k/ | Rajasthani’s S. Mewari |
/p/, /t/, /k/ | Assamese |
/p/, /t/, /tʃ/, /k/ | Romani |
/t̪/, /ʈ/ | Chittagonian |
Sanskrit was noted as having five nasal-stop articulations corresponding to its oral stops, and among modern languages and dialects Dogri, Kacchi, Kalasha, Rudhari, Shina, Saurasthtri, and Sindhi have been analyzed as having this full complement of phonemic nasals /m/ /n/ /ɳ/ /ɲ/ /ŋ/, with the last two generally as the result of the loss of the stop from a homorganic nasal + stop cluster ([ɲj] > [ɲ] and [ŋɡ] > [ŋ]), though there are other sources as well.
The following are consonant systems of major and representative New Indo-Aryan languages, as presented in Masica (1991:106–107), though here they are in IPA. Parentheses indicate those consonants found only in loanwords: square brackets indicate those with “very low functional load”. The arrangement is roughly geographical.
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English | Sinhala | Nepali | Kashmiri | Vedic Sanskrit |
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beautiful | sonduru, sundara | sundar | sondar | sundara |
blood | le, rudiraya, ruhiru | ragat | ratth | rakta, loha |
bread | paan | paũroṭi | tçhot | rotika |
bring | ghenna | lyaunu | ann | anayati |
brother | sahodaraya | bhaai, dai, daju | boéy | bhatar, bandhu |
come | enna | aaunu | vall | agataah |
cry | adanawa, handanawa | runu | wódun | rodana, rava |
dark | anduru, andhakaraya | andhyaro | anyí-got | andhakara |
daughter | duva, du | chhori | koor | putri |
day | dinaya, dawasa | din | dóh | divasa, dina |
do | karanna | garnu | kar | karoti |
door | dora, duwaraya | dhoka | darwaaz | |
die | maranaya, maruna | marnu | marun | marana, glah |
egg | bitharaya, biju | andaa | thool | andaka |
earth | pruthuvi, polova, bhoomi, bima | prithivi | dharti | pruthvi, mahi, bhuvana |
eye | asa, akshi, neth, nuwan | aankha | aéchh | netra, lochna |
father | piya, thatha | buwā, pitā | mol | pitra, janak |
fear | baya, biya | dar | bhaya, bhi | |
finger | angili | aunla | ungij | aguli, aguliyaka |
fire | agni, gini | āgo | agénn | agni, bhujyu |
fish | masun, mathasya, malu | māchā | gaad | matsya |
food | āhāra, kema, bojun, bhojana | khānā, anna, āhār | ‘khyann | bhojana, khadati |
go | yanna | janu | gachati | |
god | devi, devathava | bhagawaan, dewataa, ishwor | bhagwaan, parmeshwar, deevta | deva, ishwara, parmeshwara, devata |
good | hondhai | raamro | jaan | shobhna, uttama |
grass | thana, thruna | ghaas | dramunn | truna, kusha |
hand | atha, hasthaya | hāt | atth | bhuj |
head | oluwa, sirasa | tauko, seer | kall | shir, mastak |
heart | hada, herdaya | hridaya, mutu | hridaya | |
horse | ashvaya, thuranga | ghoda | gur | ashva, ghotaka, hayi |
house | gedhara, gruha | ghar | ghar | graha, alaya |
hunger | kusagini, badagini | bhok | bo’tchh | bubuksa, ksudha |
language | bhashawa, basa | bhaashaa | booyl | bhasha, vaani |
laugh (v.) | hina, sinaha, sina | hasnu | assun | haasa, smera |
life | jeevithe | jeewan, jindagi | zindagayn | jivana, jani |
moon | chandra, sandu, handa | chandramā, juun | tçhandram | chandra, suma, bhanta |
mother | mawa, amma, matha | aamaa, maataa | maeyj | janani, martr |
mouth | mukha, kata | aaes | ||
name | nama | nām | naav | nāma |
night | rāthriya, rae | raat, raatri | raath | raatri, rajani |
open | harinna | khulla | khol | uttana, udhatita |
peace | samaya, shāntiya | shaanti | aman, shaanti | shaanti |
place | sthanaya | thaaun, sthal | jaay | stapana, sthala, bhu |
queen | rajina, devi, bisawa | rāni | rāni, rājpatni | |
read | kiyawanna | padh- | parun | pathati, vachana |
rest | vishrāma shalawa, thanayama | ārām, bishrām | araam | vishrama |
say | pawasanna, kiyanna | bhannu | vann | vadati |
sister | bhaen, bhaengi | sohouri,souri | baeynn | |
small | chuti, podi | saano | lokutt | alpa, laghu |
son | puthra, putha, puthu | chhora | nyechu | tanaya, putra |
soul | ātma | ātmā | athma | ātma, atasa |
sun | ira, hiru, surya | surya | surya | surya |
ten | dahaya,dasa | dus | dhuh | dasha |
three | thuna | tin | t’re | tree, trayah |
village | gama, gramaya | gaun | gaam | graam, kheda |
want | oone, awashyayi | chaahanaa | amati, apekshita | |
water | jalaya, wathura, paen | pāni, jal | poyn | paniya, jala |
when | kawadhada, kedinada | kahile | karr | kada, ched |
wind | hulan, sulan, pavana, vathaya | huri, batas | pavan, vata | |
wolf | vurkaya | shyaal, bwanso | vruka, shwaka | |
woman | kanthawa, gahaniya, sthriya, mahilawa, lalanawa, liya, landa, vanithawa | mahilaa, naari, stri | zanaan | nari, vanita, stri, mahila, lalana |
year | varshaya | barsha | váreeh | varsh, shaarad |
yes / no | ow / nā | ho / hoina, la / nai | aa / ná | hyah, kam / na, ma |
yesterday | ēyeh | hijo | hyah, gatdinam, gatkale |
English | Gujarati | Marathi | Hindi | Bhojpuri | Oriya |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
beautiful | sundar | sundar | sundar | suhnar / khapsoorat | sundara |
blood | lohi, khun, rakt | rakt | khun, rakta, lahu | khoon, lahu | rakta |
bread | paũ, roṭlā | chapāti, poli | chapātī, roṭī | roṭī | pauroṭi |
bring | lā- | ān- | lā- | lāv- | nai an- |
brother | bhāi | bhau, bandhu | bhāī | bhāī, bhaīyā | bhai, bhaina |
come | āv- | ye- | ā- | āv- | ās-, ā- |
cry | raḍ- | rad- | ro- | ro- | kandu |
dark | andhārũ | andhar | andhera | anhār | andhāra |
daughter | chhokḍi | leki | beṭi | dhiyā, beṭi, chhori | jhiya |
day | divas | divas, din | din | din | dina |
do | kar- | kar- | kar- | kar- | kar- |
door | kerel | bārņu, darvājo | darvāzā, kavad | darvājā, kevadi | darwāzā |
die | mar- | mar- | mar-, mar jā- | mu, mar ja | mar- |
egg | iṇḍũ | aṇḍ | anḍā | anḍā | anḍā, ḍimba |
earth | pruthvi | pruthvi, dharani | prithvī, dhartī, zamīn | jamīn, pirthvi | pruthibi |
eye | āñkh | netra, ḍoḷā | āñkh | āñkh | ākhi |
father | bāp | pitā | bāp | bāp, babuji, pitaji | bāpa, bābā |
fear | bik, ḍar | bhiti, bhaya | ḍar | ḍar | ḍara |
finger | āñgḷi | bote | anguli, ungli | anguri | ānguthi |
fire | agni, jvaḷa | āg, agni | āg | āgh | agni, nia |
fish | māchhli | masa | machhlī | machhri | mācha |
food | anna, khorāk, poshaṇ | jevana, bhojan | khānā, bhojan | khana, ann | khādya, bhojana |
go | jā- | jā- | jā- | jā- | ja- |
god | parmeshvar, dev, bhagvān | dev, parmeshwar, ishwar | bhagvān, parmeshvar, ishvar, xudā | bhagvān, malik, iswar | bhagabāna, ṭhākura, diyan |
good | sārũ | changala | achhā | badhiya, changa | bhāla |
grass | ghāsthāro | gavata | ghās | ghās | ghāsa |
hand | hāth | hāt | hāth | hāth | hāta |
head | māthũ | ḍoke | sir, shīsh | sīr | munḍa |
heart | hruday | rudaya | dil | dil | hridaya |
horse | ghoḍũ | ghoda | ghorha | ghorha | ghoda |
house | ghar | ghar | ghar | ghara | |
hunger | bhukh | bhukh | bhūkh | bhūkh | bhoka |
language | bhāshā | bhāshā | bhāshā, zabān | bhākhā, boli, jubaan | bhāsā |
laugh (v.) | has- | hās- | hãs- | hãs- | hās- |
life | jivan, jindagi | jivan | jīvan, zindagī | jinigi | jibana, prāna |
moon | chandra, chāndo | chandra | chandramā, chandā | channa, channarma | chandra |
mother | mā, bā | āi, māi | mā | matāri, māi, amma | mā, bou |
mouth | moḍhũ, mukh | tond, mukha | mūñh | mukha, muha | mukh |
name | nām | nāv | nām | nā, nām | nāma, nā |
night | rāt, rātri, nishā | rātra | rāt, rātri, nishā | rāt | rāti |
open | khullũ | khol, ughad | khulā | khullā | kholā |
peace | shānti, shāntatā | shānti | shānti, aman | shānti, aman | sānti |
place | jagyā, sthaļ | sthān, sthal, jāga | sthān, jagah | jagah | jāgā |
queen | rāṇi, madhurāṇi | rāni, rājmātā | rāni, malkā | rāni, mallika | rāṇi |
read | vānch- | vāch- | paṛh- | paṛh- | paḍh- |
rest | ārām | vishrām | ārām | rām | ārām, visrām |
say | bol- | bol-, sang- | bol-, keh- | bol- | kah- |
sister | bêhn | bhagani, bahin | baihn | bahin | bhauṇi |
small | nāhnũ | lahan, laghu | chhoṭā | chhoṭ | choṭa, sana |
son | chhokḍo | mulga | beṭā | putt/chhora | pua |
soul | ātma | ātma | ātma, rūh | rūh | ātmā |
sun | suraj, surya | surya | sūrya, sūraj | sūruj | surjya |
ten | das | daha | das | das | dasa |
three | traṇ | tin | tīn | tīn | tini |
village | gāñḍu | gāv, kheda | gāoñ | gāoñ, jageer | gān, grāma |
want | joi- | pahije, ha- | chāh- | chāh- | |
water | pāṇi | pāṇi | pāni, jal | pāni | pāṇi, jala |
when | kyahre | kevhā | kab | kab | kebe |
wind | havā, pavan | vāra | havā, pavan | hāvā | pabana |
wolf | shiyāl | kolha | bherhiyā | bherhiyā | gadhiyā |
woman | mahilā, nāri | bāi, mahilā, stri | aurat, strī, mahilā, nāri | mehraru, aurat | stri, nāri |
year | varash | varsh | sāl, varsh | sāl | barsa |
yes / no | hā / nā | hoy, ha / nahi, na | hāñ / nā, nahīñ | hāñ / nā | han / |
yesterday | (gai-)kāl(-e) | kāl | kāl | kālh | (gata-)kāli |
English | Pali | Romani | Saraiki (southern Punjabi) | Assamese | Bengali | Maithili | Punjabi (Indian) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
beautiful | sundaro | shukar | sohnra | dhuniya, xundôr | shundor | sundar | sohnā, sundar |
blood | rat | laho, rat | tez | rôkto, lohit, lohu | shonit | khoon, lahoo | |
bread | manro | roti, ma(n)ri, dhodha | pauruti | (pau-)ruṭi | roṭi | roṭi | |
bring | anel | Ghin aa, Lai aa | an- | ano | anaah | liya, laao | |
brother | phral | Bharaa, Veer, Lala | bhaiti | bhai | bveer, bhai, Bhaji | ||
come | aagaccha | avel | Aao | aanha, aanhok | asho, ai | ā- | aao, aajaa |
cry | rodanam | rovel | rovanra | kand- | kãd- | roh, ronaa | |
dark | andhakaaro | kalo | andhara | andhar, ôndhôkar | ôndhokar, ãdhar | haneraa | |
daughter | chhai | Dhee | ziyari, ziyek | me-lok | beti | ||
day | dives | denh, jehara | din | din, dibôsh | dina | ||
do | kerel | karo | kôr- | koro | kar- | kar, karo | |
door | dvara, kapat | vudar | buha, dar | duar, dôrza | dôrja, dur | booha, darwaza | |
die | merel | marna | môr- | môr, more ja-, mara ja- | mar-, mar ja- | ||
egg | anro | anda, Aana | koni | ḍim | āṇḍā | ||
earth | phuv | zameen, dharti | prithibi | prithibi, duniya | jag, jahān, prithvi, zamin | ||
eye | yakh | akh | soku | chokh | ainkh | ākh | |
father | dad | abba, piyoo | dêuta | baba, abba, bap | bāp, pitā | ||
fear | dar, trash | darr | bhoi | bhôe, ḍôr | bhay | dhar | |
finger | angusht | ungil | anguli | ang-gul | āngur | ongli | |
fire | manta | yag | bhaa | zui | agun | agg | |
fish | machho | machhey | mas | machh | machhi | ||
food | xal | roti-tukkur, khanra | ahar, khaiddyô, khuwa bostu | khabar | khānā, roti, ann | ||
go | jal | vanj | zu-, za- | ja-, gê- | jaa | ||
god | devel | rab, mālik, allāh | debôta, bhôgôwan | bhôgoban, ishshor, rab | rabb, bhagwaan, waheguru | ||
good | lachho, mishto | changa | bhal | bhalo | neek, neeman | changa, wadia | |
grass | char | ghā | ghã | ghash | kāh | ||
hand | vast | hat | hat | hat | hath | ||
head | shero | ser | mur | matha | sirr, sees | ||
heart | ilo | Dil | hridai, hiyan | ridôe | dil | ||
horse | khoro, grast | ghora | ghůra | ghoṛa | ghorha | ||
house | kher | ghar | ghôr | ghôr | ghar | ||
hunger | bokh | bhuk | bhuk | khide | bhukh | ||
language | chhib | boli, zaban | bhaxa | bhasha | bhāshā | ||
laugh (v.) | asal | khill | hã- | hãsh- | has- | ||
life | jivipen | zindgey | zibôn | jibon | jiban | jeevan, zindgi | |
moon | chhon | chandr | zunbai | chãd, chôndro | chann, chand, chandarmā | ||
mother | dai | amma, maa | ai, ma | ma, amma, mao | myay | maa, mata, bebe | |
mouth | mui | mukh | mukh | moonh | mukha | ||
name | nav | nā | nam | nam | nām | nām, nā | |
night | raat | rati | rat, ratri, ratro | rat | rat | ||
open | rat | khulla | khula | khola | khol, khulla | ||
peace | kotor | aman, sakoon | xanti | shanti | shaanti, aman | shanti | |
place | than | jaga | thai | jaega, sthan jomin | jagah, thaan, asthaan | ||
queen | rani, thagarni | ranri, malka | rani | rani | rāni | ||
read | chaduvu | parhnra, parh | pôṛh- | pôṛ- | parh- | ||
rest | Araam | zirani | aram, bishrom | ramman, araam | |||
say | phenel | bol, aakh | kũ- | bôl- | baiju | bol, kaeh | |
sister | phen | bheinr | bhonti | bon, apa, didi | bahin | bahini,didi | |
small | tikno, xurdo | nikka, chauta | xoru | chhoṭo | chhoit | chhotaa, nikka | |
son | chhavo | putr | putek | chhele, pola | putt, putter, munda | ||
soul | di | rooh | atma | attã, ãtta | ātma, rooh | ||
sun | kham | sijh | xuirzyô, baeli | shurjo, roud | suruj | suraj | |
ten | desh | dah | dôh | dôsh | das | ||
three | trin | trai | tini | tin | tinn | ||
village | gav | dehat, jhoauk, vasti | gaon | gram | pind, gran | ||
want | kamel, mangel | chah | lôg- | cha- | chāh | ||
water | pani | panri | pani | jôl, pani | pāni, jal | ||
when | kana | kadanr | ketiyan | kôkhon, kôbe | kakhan, kahiya | kad, kadon | |
wind | balval | hava, Phook | bôtãh | batash, haoa | havā, paun | ||
wolf | ruv | baghiyaar | xiyal | sheal | siyār | bherhiya | |
woman | juvli | aurat, treimat, zaal, zanaani | mohila, maiki manuh | mohila, nari, shtri | aurat, zanaani, teeveen, istari | ||
year | bersh | saal | bôsôr | bôchhor | barxa | saal, varah | |
yes / no | va / na | ha / na | hoi / nohoi | hê, hoi, ho, oi / na | haan, aaho / naheen, naa | ||
yesterday | ij | kal | (zuwa-)kali | (gôto-)kal(-ke) | kal |
Published - November 2013
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