(Appendices)
(examples of coding and translation, fragments of coordinated
dictionary entries)
App. 1. The phrases containing the polysemantic words.
App. 2. The phrases containing the polysemantic set
expressions and the set expressions characterized
by the structural formula with variable lexical components.
App. 3. The coding and translation with using the differentiated
(morphological) meanings of the verbal forms.
App. 4. The coding and translation with using the differentiated
(morphological) meanings of pronouns.
Fragments of the coordinated
dictionary entries contain a following designation
symbols:
c.e.d.
– the coordinated explanatory dictionary of
source language;
c.b.d.
- the coordinated bilingual dictionary of source
language – target language;
ill.e.
- the illustrative examples reflecting the different
use of the words at those or other semantic meanings;
c.w.
- contextual word; c.w.* - the
concrete contextual word which the author should mark
in the source text (in cases concerning the identification
of syntactic links);
morphm
- the
sections of differentiated (morphological) meanings;
(syntaxm)
- the
sections of differentiated (syntactic) meanings.
The
some examples contain both
the machine translations based on universal semantic coding
(are designated by symbol ♦)
and, for comparison, the usual machine translations (are
designated by symbol ♦♦).
For
brevity, the variants of semantic meanings are separated from each other by a symbol
/.
App.1. The phrases containing the polysemantic words.
Examples
with the Russian’s source texts (the fragments of dictionary entries from native c.e.d. [5] and from the c.b.d.(s)
[8,10,13]).
1. The source text:
Его вид оставлял желать много лучшего.
| Russian c.e.d.
вид
I 1 пейзаж, перспектива 2 наружность
|
Russian
– English c.b.d.
вид I 1 пейзаж … view 2 наружн…
appearance, look
3 состояние … state,
condition 4 поле зрения sight 5 наме…
prospect(s)
|
| он, его, ему, им, о нём, … указывает на лицо, не являющ. ни говорящим,
ни собеседн., или на неодуш. предм. речи [5]
(morphm) (а) ~ указывает на лицо (b) ~ указывает на предм.
речи (о вещи, явлении и т.п.) |
(b)
~ it |
|
оставлять … <> оставляет желать лучшего |
оставлять … <> оставл… leaves much to be desired |
In a context the matter concerns the appearance of person; the author marks:
-
in entry of word вид I – the meaning 2 concerning appearance,
-
in entry of pronoun он, его, ему … - the meaning (morphm) (а) concerning person,
-
at last, in entry of verb оставлять – the set expression оставляет желать лучшего.
As a result, the following coded text and
its machine translation is received:
| Его{он, его, … (morphm) (а)}
вид{вид I… 2. наружность} <оставлял{оставлять … <>
оставляет желать лучшего} желать много
лучшего>.
(the translation into English):
♦ His appearance has left much to be desired.
♦♦
His
(its) kind(?)
has left to wish much the best. |
For comparison: the usual program of MT
does not give the definite translation of a pronoun его,
and also uses the meaning of a homonym вид II which is not concerning appearance.
2. The source texts: Суд оправдал его.
Их ожидания успешного старта не оправдались.
| Russian
c.e.d.
оправд|ывать, -ать (вн.) 1. доказывать чью-л. правоту
2. о подсудимом |
Russian
– English c.b.d.
оправд|ывать, -ать (вн.) 1. доказывать чью-л. правоту justify 2. о подсудимом acquit, judge not guilty |
| оправд|ываться, -аться 1. доказать свою невиновность …
2. оказываться правильным, пригодным, подтверждаться,
сбываться; теория ~ алась; эти надежды
не ~ ались |
оправд|ываться, -аться 1. доказать … justify oneself…
2. оказываться … prove to be correct, come true; теория …
the theory proved to be correct; эти надежды … these hopes were not realized. |
The author marks:
-
in entry of verb оправд|ывать
- the
meaning 2
concerning accused,
-
in entry of pronoun он - the meaning (morphm)
(а)
concerning person,
-
at last, in entry of verb оправд|ываться - the meaning 2 concerning reality and ill.e. … эти надежды не ~ ались.
As a result, the following coded sentences
are received:
| Суд оправдал{оправд|ывать … (вн.) 2. о подсудимом}
его{он,
его, ему… (morphm) (а) ~ указывает на лицо}.
Их ожидания не оправдались{оправд|ываться
… 2.
… эти надежды не ~ ались}.
(the translation into English):
♦ The court has acquitted him. Their
expectations of successful start were not realized.
♦♦
The
court has justified it (him)(?). Their expectations
of successful start were not justified(?). |
For comparison:
- the usual program of MT uses while translating the second sentence the
other meaning of word оправд|ывать not corresponding to the sense of context;
- as well as in the previous example, the
usual program of MT does not give the definite translation
of a pronoun он, его ...
Examples
with the English’s source texts (the fragments of dictionary entries from native c.e.d.(s) [6,7] and from the c.b.d.(s) [8,13,15]).
1. The source text:
The new device merits notice. Their projects were
realized.
|
English c.e.d.
notice n 1 intimation …
4 attention
5 critique |
English
– Russian c.b.d.
notice n 1 intimation извещ.,
уведомл.; предупреждение … 4 attention внимание 5
critique критич. отзыв |
| realize v 1 be aware of; grasp mentally; to ~ fully 2 convert into
fact … |
realize v 1 be aware of
осозн|авать, -ать; понимать ясно, во всех деталях; grasp mentally сообра|жать, -зить; to ~ fully хорошо
пред-ставлять себе 2 convert into fact осуществ|лять, -ить … |
The author
marks depending on context the different meanings of word
notice and the one of meanings of word realize:
| The
new device merits notice{notice n... 4 attention / 5 critique}. Their projects were realized{realize v... 2 convert…}.
(the translation into Russian):
♦
Новое устройство заслуживает внимания / критического отзыва. Их проекты были осуществлены.
♦♦ Новое устройство заслуживает извещения (уведомления, предупреждения)(?). Их проекты были поняты(?). |
For comparison: the usual program of MT chooses only the first meaning, without taking
into account a sense of a context.
2. The source text: This article places primary emphasis
upon physical conditions.
| English c.e.d.
article n 1 particular
or separate thing … 2 piece of writing:
This article discusses… |
English
– Russian c.b.d.
article n 1 вещь, предмет 2 piece
of … статья: This article… В этой статье обсуждается… |
| condition n state;
…pl., circumstances |
cond… n
state состояние; … pl., circumst…
условия |
| place v stand;
lay; identify; ~ emphasis on to make the
special meaning … |
place v stand ставить, по-; lay класть; identify определ|ять, -ить; ~ emphasis
on придавать знач. |
|
primary adj 1 original 2
fundamental, basic |
prim… adj
1 original исходный 2
fundam… основной |
The author marks:
- ill.e. characterizing the using of word article
with the meaning 2,
- the word-combination place emphasis on,
- the likely
meanings of words primary, condition (the word primary is wedged in the
word-combination place emphasis on and doesn’t
influence the allegorical meaning of a word-combination,
but does impossible a machine search):
| This article{article n … 2
piece of writing …:This article discusses…}
<places{place v … ~ emphasis on} primary{primary adj 2 fundamental, basic}
emphasis upon>
physical conditions{condition n pl., circumstances}.
(the translation into Russian):
♦ В этой статье основное значение
придаётся физическим условиям.
♦♦ Эта статья (изделие(?)) помещает
(размещает)
первичный акцент(?) в
физические условия (состояния). |
As we see, the usual
program of MT executed the word-by-word translation.
3. The source text: The detection of trace components has
always been a challenge to the analytical
chemist.
| English c.e.d.
challenge n. to a race etc.; sentry’s; … difficult, demanding or
stimulating task
|
English
– Russian c.b.d.
challenge n. to a race etc. вызов; sentry’s оклик; …difficult, demanding … сложная
задача, проблема
|
The author
marks depending on context the one of meanings of word
challenge:
| The detection of trace components has always been
a challenge{challenge
n. difficult …} to the analytical chemist.
(the translation into Russian):
♦ Обнаружение следов
компонентов всегда было сложной
задачей (проблемой) для аналитического
химика.
♦♦ Обнаружение следов компонентов всегда
было вызовом(?) аналитическому химику. |
Examples
with the Deutsch’s source text
The source text: Auf die Frage sei hier nicht eingegangen.
| Deutsch c.e.d. [9,9*]
eingehen (Briefe,
Gelder);
auf j-n e. sich (intensiv) mit j-m etw. befassen
(auf Details) <auf j-s Fragen, j-s Probleme>;
auf j-n nicht e.: auf ein Thema
nicht näher e.; auf Einzelheiten nicht
e.; auf etw. e. etw. akzeptieren
(morphm)(imperf-v);(perf-v) |
Deutsch-Russisch
c.b.d. [14]
eingehen (Briefe,
Gelder) поступ|ать,-ить (о почте); auf j-n e. детально оста|навл.,-новиться, проя|влять,-вить вним.; auf j-n nicht e. оставл. что-л. без вним.: auf ein Thema nicht näher e. не остан. детально на этой теме; auf Einzelheiten nicht e. не вдав. в подробн.; auf etw. e. соглаш. с
ч.-л.
(morphm) (несоверш); (соверш) |
Having compared the
source text with the dictionary entry in the Deutsch’s
c.e.d., the author has marked the structural formula
of word-combination auf j-n
nicht e. and has marked the appropriate ill.e. of this word-combination; in other case, the
author has marked the structural formula of word-combination
auf etw. e.; also author has marked the meaning
(imperf-v) in the
section (morphm):
| <Auf die Frage sei hier nicht eingegangen{einge... ~ auf j-n nicht e.: auf ein
Thema nicht näher e. / auf etw. e.; (morphm)(imperf-v)}>
(the
translations into Russian):
♦ Не стоило здесь детально останавливаться
на этом вопросе /… признавать, соглашаться с этим вопросом
♦♦ На вопрос здесь не поступил бы (На вопрос явился бы
здесь не шедшим). |
As we see, the usual program of MT executed
the word-by-word translation.
Examples with the Hebrew’s source texts (the fragments of dictionary
entries from native c.e.d. [11**] and from the c.b.d.(s) [11,
11***])
| Hebrew c.e.d. [11**]
מִבטֶא ז' 1 הגייה, אופי
ההגייה של
דובר לפי
לשון אִמו
וכד'
2 ביטוי, צירוף
מילים, מימרה,
ניב |
Hebrew-Russian c.b.d. [11]
1 выговор,מִבטֶא ז' произнош., акцент
2 выражение, идиома |
Hebrew-English c.b.d. [11***]
1 utterance, מִבטֶא ז' pronunciation
2 idiom expression, |
| מִבטָח ז' 1 מַהסֶה,
מקום בטוח
2 בִטָחוֹן
|
1 опора, מִבטָח ז' убежище
2 безопасность |
1
fortress, מִבטָח ז' confidence, reliance, trust, faith
2 security |
|
מִבנֶה ז' 1 בנין, מקום
בנוי
2 צורה שבה
דבר בנוי
או מורכב
3 תבנית |
1
сооруж.,
מִבנֶה ז'
здание,
стройка
2 конструкция, структура, дизайн
3 формат, строение |
1
building מִבנֶה ז'
build,
construction, 2 structure, frame, design
3 format, formation |
The
author marks in the native c.e.d. those or other meanings
of words depending on a context.
For
brevity, the different phrases are separated from each other by a symbol //.
1. The source phrases containing the noun מִבטֶא:
| עתיק.
המשפט
הזה הוא מִבטֶא מִבטֶא
של האיש הזה …//
← |
| (the translations into Russian and English using the
marked meanings of the polysemantic noun מִבטֶא)
♦ (1)Произношение
(выговор)
этого человека … // Эта фраза - древнее
(2)выражение (идиома).
♦ (1)Pronunciation of this man … // This phrase is an
ancient (2)utterance )expression, idiom). |
2. The source phrases containing the noun מִבטָח:
| הוא סמך על
מִבטֶח ...//
אנחנו סומכים
על מִבטָח
… ← |
| (the translations into Russian and English using the
marked meanings of the polysemantic noun מִבטָח)
♦ Он рассчитывал на (1)убежище (опору) … // Мы рассчитываем
на (2)безопасность
…
♦ He counted on (1)fortress (confidence, reliance, trust,
faith)
… // We count on (2)security … |
3. The source
phrase containing the noun
מִבנֶה:
| המִבנֶה
הזה מתאים ל ... ← |
| (the translations into Russian and English
using the marked meanings of the polysemantic noun מִבנֶה)
♦ Это (1)сооружение
(здание, эта стройка) соответствует …
// (2)Конструкция (структура, дизайн) соотв...
♦ This (1)building corresponds to … // The (2)build (construction, structure, frame, design)
corresp... |
App. 2. Examples of coding and translation
of the phrases containing the polysemantic set expressions
and the set expressions characterized by the structural
formula with variable lexical components.
It
may, the given word, together with its some neighbouring
words, represents a set expression. In order to translate
such word-combination it is necessary to search the known
word-combinations related to the given word. It is also
possible that there is the structure with variable
lexical components, which, although do not influence the
allegorical meaning of a set expression, but complicate
or do impossible a machine search. For example:
-
some attributes or adverbial modifiers may have been wedged
into the set expression, giving it a more specific meaning
as a whole,
-
or parenthetical words may have been added,
-
variable components may have been added at the beginning
or at the end of the set expression,
-
those either other own words or their sequence have been
changed, etc. [4]
In
this connection, it is necessary to define which words
belong to the set expression, to find the borders inside
the phrase, to define the key word and, at last, to choose
the meaning corresponding to the context. The author should
also mark in the source text by special (bold) font the
given word and other words which are a part of the word-combination
(except for the wedged words), and, besides, author should
designate by means of special boundary symbols the left
and right bounds of the word-combination in the given
sentence (for example, by angular brackets).
The
polysemantic set expressions and them explanations are borrowed from [4].
1. The source phrases: This construction can give way.
My brother has heard this news and began to give way.
If it is in reality a heart attack, his good mood can
give way.
| English c.e.d.
way n … give ~ fail
to resist; collapse; make concessions: The bridge
gave ~ under the weight of the lorry; His
health gave ~; The bashfulness of the guests
soon gave ~ ; Something gave ~ in
him, and words came welling up |
English-Russian c.b.d.
way n … give ~ fail to
resist поддаваться; collapse рухнуть; make concessions уступать: The bridge … Мост рухнул под весом грузовика; His health … Его здоровье
надломилось; The bashfulness … Застенчивость гостей быстро рассеялась; Something gave …Что-то прорвалось в нём, и слова посыпались
одно за другим |
The author has marked in the native English
c.e.d. the set expression give
way and has marked
the following elements of dictionary entry:
- in the first sentence the matter concerns a state of
construction, therefore author has marked the ill.e.
The bridge
gave ~ under the weight of the lorry;
- in the second - a state of spirit of the person, therefore author has marked the meaning … give ~ make concessions;
- at last, in the third - a state of health of the person, therefore author has marked the ill.e.
His health gave ~
As a result, the following coded text and its machine
translation is received:
| This construction can <give way{way n... give ~: The
bridge gave ~ under the weight of the lorry}>.
My brother has heard this
news and began to <give way{way n... give ~ make
concessions}> .
If it is in reality a heart
attack, his good mood can <give
way{way
n... give ~: His health gave
~ }>.
(translations into Russian):
♦ Эта конструкция может рухнуть. Мой брат услышал эту новость и начал
уступать. Если это действительно инфаркт,
то его хорошее расположение духа может надломиться.
♦♦ Эта конструкция может уступить
дорогу(?). Мой брат услышал эту новость и начал
уступать дорогу. Если это действительно инфаркт,
то его хорошее настроение может уступить дорогу(?). |
From comparison follows, that the usual program of MT has executed the
word-by-word translation of the all sentences.
2.
The source text: I
was compelled to dress on the run.
He has caught a bus already on the run.
| English c.e.d.
run n 1 action of ~ning; … on
the ~ (a) fleeing from pursuit
or capture; (b) continuously active and moving
about …: She has been on the ~ all morning;
She grabbed her coat on the ~ and raced
after them; They scrambled down the embankment and
caught a streetcar on the ~ |
English-Russian c.b.d.
run
n 1 action of ~ning бег…; on the ~ (a) fleeing
… в бегстве; (b) continuously … в движ., в беготне, в суете, на бегу, в спешке, на ходу: She has been… Она была в бегах всё утро; She grabbed … Она схватила
на бегу пальто и бросилась за ними вдогонку;
They scrambled …Они
сбежали с насыпи и на ходу вскочили в трамвай |
The author has marked the set expression
on the run and has marked the following elements of dictionary entry:
- in the first sentence the matter concerns a movement
of the person, therefore author
has marked the ill.e.
… on the ~ (b): She
grabbed …;
- in the second - a movement of a vehicle, therefore author has marked
the ill.e. … on
the ~ (b): They… caught a streetcar…
As a result, the following coded text and its machine
translation is received:
| I was compelled to dress <on the run{run n... on the ~ (b):
She grabbed her coat on the ~ and raced …}>.
He has caught a bus already
<on the run{run n ... on the ~
(b): They scrambled down … and caught
a streetcar on the ~}>.
(translations into Russian):
♦ Я был вынужден одеваться на
бегу. Он вскочил в автобус уже на ходу.
♦♦ Я был вынужден одеваться на пробеге.
Он вскочил в автобус уже на пробеге(?). |
As we
see, the
result is similar to the previous example.
The following three examples concern the set expressions
characterized by the structural formula with variable
lexical components.
3.
The source text: … sometimes I am inclined to think
it was a great deal of cry for very little wool.
| English c.e.d.
cry n … much ~ and little wool trouble; fuss;
unnecessary activity … |
English-Russian c.b.d.
cry n… much ~ and … много шума из ничего; шума много,
а толку мало… |
The author has
found in the dictionary entry cry
n the idiom much
cry and little wool; there are the deep differences
between idiom and the source phrase both in lexical components
and in word order (there are the wedging of other words).
Then, the author has marked
in the source phrase the words coincident
with this idiom on sense:
| … sometimes I am inclined
to think it was <a great deal of cry{cry n … much cry and little
wool} for
very little wool>.
(translations into Russian):
♦ … иногда я склонен думать,
что было много шума из ничего или было
шума много, а толку мало.
♦♦ …иногда, я склонен думать, что был
большой крик об очень небольшом количестве шерсти(?). |
From
comparison follows, that the usual program of MT hasn’t
defined, that the some words in the given phrase belong
to this word-combination, and has only executed word-by-word
translation.
4. The source text: They reached it at what
seemed long last.
| English c.e.d.
reach v 1 attain,
fetch with outstretched hand 2 arrive at
…
last n … at (long) ~ in the end |
English-Russian c.b.d.
reach v 1 attain,
fetch with … дотя|гиваться, - нуться 2 arrive at достиг|ать, - нуть …
last n
… at long ~ in the end в конце концов, наконец. |
The author has
found in the dictionary entry last
n the word-combination
at (long) last, in word order of which there are
the other words “what seemed”. Then, the author
has marked in the source phrase the words coincident
with this word-combination:
| They reached{reach v... 2 arrive at} it <at what seemed long last{last n... at (long) ~}>.
(translations into Russian):
♦ В конце концов
или наконец, они, как кажется, достигли этого.
♦♦ Они достигли этого в том, что казалось
долго последним(?). |
As we
see, the
result is similar to the previous example.
5. The source text: There is something suspicious about it -
where there is so much smoke, surely there must
have been at least one spark of fire! (U. Sinclair,
“The Brass Check”) [4].
| English c.e.d.
smoke n …
there’s no ~ without fire there is always some
reason for a rumor … |
English-Russian c.b.d.
smoke n …
there’s no ~ without fire нет дыма без огня … |
The author has
found in the dictionary entry smoke
n the word-combination there’s no ~ without fire
[6]; there are
also the deep differences between idiom and the source
phrase both in lexical components and in word order (there
are the wedging of other words). Then, the author
has marked in the source
phrase the words coincident with this idiom on sense:
| There is something suspicious about
it - where <there
is so much smoke{smoke n … there’s no ~ without fire}, surely there
must have been at least one spark of
fire>!
(translations into Russian):
♦ В этом есть кое-что подозрительное – конечно,
где нет дыма без
огня!
♦♦… где есть так много дыма, конечно, должно быть
была по крайней мере одна искра огня! |
As we
see, the
result is similar to the previous examples.
The all examples presented
above have shown, that the usual program of MT may choose
only one meaning of a polysemantic set expression; if
the structural formula of an idiom has variable lexical
components, the usual program carries out word-by-word
translation.
App.
3. Examples of coding and translation with using the
differentiated (morphological) meanings of the verbal
forms.
Below
are the examples of phrases in which the actions and /or
the states, reached as a result of the actions, are expressed
by words or group of words possessing a grammatical (morphological)
ambiguity, for example, concerning the expressing of actions
of Imperfective / of Perfective or concerning the expressing
of actions which, in certain way, are finished / are continued
etc. (i.e. it is possible to judge the character of the
action and / or the state only from context).
At
the same time, the specific grammatical forms of some
verbs (participles) are used in the target language to
express the shades of the meanings of the actions and
/ or the states required by the source context.
The author chooses, depending on a context, both a semantic meaning of
a verb and a differentiated (morphological) meaning. The
specified differentiated (morphological) meanings are
presented in dictionary entry in the form of the separate
section that follows those semantic word meanings to which
this section is general. These sections have a symbolic
designation (morphm) (an abbreviation
of morphological meanings).
The
Tables A, B contain, as a sample, fragments of the coordinated
entries with some grammatical meanings of verbs write and писать; the references to these
tables are in all examples.
Table A
| English c.e.d.
|
English-Russian c.b.d.
|
| (morphm) 1. Inf., Indef. T. (a)
(imperf-ve):
I shall write the letter tomorrow, but
I am not sure that I finish it. (b) (perf-ve):
I shall write the letter tomorrow, but
I am not sure whether I shall have time to send
it. |
(morphm) 1. (a) (несоверш): Я буду писать письмо завтра,
но
не уверен, что закончу его. (b) (соверш): Я напишу
письмо
завтра,
но не уверен, что успею отправить его. |
| 2. passive form (a) (state): The article is (has
been) written and can be published. (b) (action): The article
is written by means of me. (c) (imperf-ve) (d) (perf-ve) |
2. страдат.: (a) (состояние): Статья написана и м.б. опубликована.
(b) (действие): Статью пишут (статья пишется)
с моей помощью.
(c) (несоверш.) (d) (соверш.) |
|
3. should+Indef. Inf., Perf. Inf. (a) (indicative):
You should have written this article. (b) (subjunctive): You should have at first written this article. |
3.
(a) (изъявит): Вам следовало написать эту
статью. (b) (сослагат): Вам следовало бы сначала
написать эту статью. |
| Russian – English c.e.d.
писать, на-...Изобразить на поверхности …
|
Russian – English c.b.d.
писать, на- ... Изобраз … write…
(morphm) 1. (a)
Indef. T.: I shall paint etudes
tomorrow and I shall finish them if my energy will
suffice. |
| (b) (длит.): незаконч. длит. действ., к-ое
началось до опред. м-та в наст., прош., будущ.: Я буду писать статью в к-це года. |
(b) Contin. T.: I shall be
writing an article
at the end of year. |
| (c) (к опред. м-ту): действ. со|вершённое, за- к опред.
м-ту в наст., прош., будущ.: Я написал
письмо до того, как он приш. |
(c)
Perf. T.: I had written the letter before
he arrived. |
| (d) (изв. дл-ти): действ., начавш. до опред. м-та
в наст., прош., будущ. и длившееся изв. период врем.,
вкл. этот м-т: Я писал статью уже
час, когда он приш. |
(d) Perf. Contin. T.: I had
been writing an article
for an hour when he came. |
| 2. страдат.
(a) (состояние): Статья написана и м.б. опубл.
(b) (действие, неопред.): Статьи обычно пишутся в библиотеке.
(c) (действие, длит.): Статья
сейчас пишется. Редактору придется подождать.
(d) (действие, к опред. м-ту): Статья только что написана с моей помощью. |
(b) (action): Indef. Passive T.: Articles are usually written
at library. (c) (action)
Contin. Passive
T.: The article is being
written. The editor will have to wait.
(d) (action)
Perf. Passive
T.: The article have just been written with
my help. |
|
(b) (в прошл.): Если
бы вы написали спецификацию, мы начали бы
проект. Но вы до сих пор не закончили. |
3.
Conditional Sentence
(a)
If you written
(should write, were to write)
specification, we should start the project. But
we
shall
not end
soon.
(b) If we have written
specification, we should have started the project.
But we have not ended till now. |
1) The phrases containing some grammatically ambiguous
verbal forms in Active / Passive Voice, and also in Infinitive.
a)
the meanings of verbal form in English (Table A); a verb, not having special grammatical forms of the imperfective
or the perfective, expresses, in context, an action of
imperfective or of perfective; this should be considered
during translation, for example, into Russian, in which
verbs have separate imperfective and perfective forms.
In the Passive Voice:
| The encoded source text |
The
translations |
|
The house will be built{build … (morphm)
2.(c) (imperf-ve)} by company when we return and
the garage won’t be ready. |
♦
Дом будет строить ф. (будет -ся), когда мы вернемся, и гараж не будет готов. |
| The house will be built{build … (morphm)
2.(d) (perf-ve)} by company when we return but
the garage won’t be ready. |
♦ Дом будет построен ф. (построит), когда мы вернёмся, но гараж ещё не будет готов |
| |
♦♦
… будет построен … (in both sentences) |
The author has marked in the dictionary entry the meaning
(imperf-ve) or (perf-ve) to characterize
the actions in the beginning of the sentence, depending on character of state in the end of the sentence.
As
we see, the sense may be
defined by means of comparison the states of house and
garage at the moment of returning:
“… and the garage
won’t
be ready” (i.e. the house also won’t be ready)
“… but the garage won’t be ready” (i.e. only the garage won’t be ready).
The
meanings (imperf-ve),
(perf-ve) directly specify the actions or states in the future.
The usual program of MT uses
only one of verbal forms.
In Infinitive:
- in English [6,7,8]
| How to cross{cross
v
… (morphm) 1.(a)
(imperf-ve) / (b) (perf-ve)} these rivers
is the question |
♦ Вопрос в том, как 1.(a) переправ|ляться / как (b)
-иться
через эти реки. |
| <To add{add v 1 ~ luster to
… (morphm) 1.(a)
(imperf-ve) / (b) (perf-ve)} glaring luster to>
smth. is very difficult. |
♦ 1.(a) Придавать / (b) придать ослепительный блеск очень трудно. |
| I
<biased{bias v.t. ~ someone against
an idea … (morphm) 1.(a)
(imperf-ve) / (b) (perf-ve)} myself
against this fixed idea>
but… |
♦ Я 1.(a) настраивал / (b) настроил себя против этой навязчивой идеи, но … |
| To
train{train in a habit …
(morphm) 1.(a)
(imperf-ve) / (b) (perf-ve)} a disobedient child
to study regularly |
♦ 1.(a)Приучать / (b)приучить непослуш. ребёнка регулярно заниматься … |
| |
♦♦
(one of forms in all sentences) |
- in Deutsch:
| Laß
uns rationell <vorgehen{vorg... ~ bei... (morphm)
1.(a) (imperf-v) / (b) (perf-v)} bei> … |
♦ Позвольте нам рационал. 1.(a) подходить
/ (b) подойти к … |
| Es
ist offensichtlich, daß den Worten auch die
Taten folgen{fo... (morphm) 1.(a)
(imperf-v) / (b) (perf-v)} sollen. |
♦ Очевидно, что за сл-ми должны также 1.(a) следовать
/
(b) по- дела. |
| |
♦♦ (one of forms in all
sentences) |
The all examples presented above have shown that the usual
program of MT gives one of variants of translation into
Russian, without taking into account a general sense of context.
The choice of some semantic meanings was carried
out on the basis of following entries:
|
English
c.e.d.
add v 1 make an addition of; build on; impart: ~ luster
to 2 say in addition
(morphm) 1. Inf.,
Indef. T. (a)
(imperf-ve);
(b) (perf-ve) |
English-Russian
c.b.d.
add v 1 make an… приб|авлять, -авить; …impart: ~ luster to прид|авать,- ать блеск 2 say in … доб|авлять,-авить … (morphm) 1. (a) (несоверш.); (b) (соверш.) |
| bias v.t. influence;
prejudice; ~ someone against an idea
(morphm) 1. Inf.,
Indef. T. (a)
(imperf-ve); (b) (perf-ve) |
bias v.t. influ… склон|ять, -ить; preju… предубе|ждать,-дить; ~ someone against … настр|аивать, -оить против к.-н. идеи (morphm) 1. (a) (несоверш.); (b) (соверш.) |
| Deutsch
c.e.d.
[9, 14]
vorgehen ...
2 irgendwie ~ in e-r bestimmten Art etw.
tun ...; ~ nach; ~ bei; ~ gegen
(morphm) 1.
(a)
(imperf-v); (b) (perf-v) |
Deutsch-Russian c.e.d.
vorgehen …2
irgendwie ~ in e-r …посту|пать, -пить; ~ bei под|ходить,-дойти к; ~ gegen при|нимать,-нять меры против
(morphm) 1. (a) (несоверш.); (b) (соверш.) |
2) The phrases containing some grammatically ambiguous verbal forms
in
Subjunctive Mood.
a) the conditional sentences in
Russian in Subjunctive
Mood with the particle “бы”
(Table B); a verb, not having special grammatical forms, expresses,
in context, an unlikely or improbable
action in Present-Future or in Past (possibly
the time is pointed in a sentence previous to or subsequent
to the present one or in one of neighbouring sentences);
this should be considered during translation, for example,
into English, in which verbs have separate forms.
|
Если
бы я его встретил{встр…
(morphm) 3.(a) (в наст.-будущ.)}, я спросил бы его. Жаль, что
я не увижу его. |
♦
If I met (should meet, were to meet) him,
I should ask him. It is a pity I shall not see
him. |
| Если бы я его встретил{встр… (morphm) 3.(b) (в прошл.)}, я спросил бы его. Жаль, что
я не увидел его. |
♦
If I had met him, I should have asked him.
It is a pity I have not seen him. |
| |
♦♦…have met it, I
would ask…
(in both sentences)
|
The author has marked in the dictionary entry one of the meanings
to characterize the actions in the conditional sentences, depending
on the time of performance
of a condition in the next
sentence, namely:
-
“…
я не увижу…” (in Future), author has marked meaning 3.(a)
-
“… я не увидел…” (in Past), author has marked meaning 3.(b).
As we see, the usual program of MT does not consider time of performance of a
condition and uses only one
of verbal forms.
b) the sentences in English:
a combination of the verb "should" with Indefinite
Infinitive or with Perfect Infinitive may carry
out, depending on general sense of text, both function
of Indicative Mood and function of Subjunctive Mood ([12], стр. 214-216, § 131), see Table A, the meanings (morphm) 3. should+Indef. Inf., Perf. Inf. (a), (b):
| We
should <clear{clear
v.… ~ away …(morphm) 3.(a)
(indicative) / (b)
(subjunctive)} away> this difficulty. |
♦ Нам 3.(a) следует / (b) следовало бы рассеять это противоречие. |
| You
should have helped{help v. … (morphm) 3.(a) (indicative)
/ (b)
(subjunctive)} her. |
♦ Вам 3.(a) следовало / (b) следовало бы помочь ей.
|
The author
has marked in the dictionary entry one of the meanings
depending on general sense of text:
(morphm) 3.(a)
(indicative) – the action in form of Indicative
Mood or (b) (subjunctive) - the action in form of Subjunctive Mood.
App.4.
Examples of coding and translation with using the differentiated
(morphological) meanings of pronouns.
Below
are the examples of phrases in which are pronouns possessing
a grammatical (morphological) ambiguity, namely, the personal
and reflexive pronouns have no separate forms to denote
the person of masculine or feminine gender / the person
or a group of persons / a group of persons of masculine
or feminine gender / the person or an inanimate object,
and also possessive pronouns
have no separate forms to indicate
the gender and / or grammatical number of the belonging
object, or the separate forms specifying a gender of the
person to which it belongs (i.e. when the meaning depends
on who or what is being described in context); at the
same time those or other target languages can have the
pronouns (and / or words, contextually associated with
them) which have the concrete grammatical forms to express
above mentioned attributes, etc. (i.e. it is possible to judge in the source text
the meaning of the some pronouns only from context).
As
well as above, the author chooses, depending on a context,
both a semantic meaning of a pronoun and a differentiated
(morphological) meaning. The author may mark the meaning
corresponding to a gender and/or a number, a person or
an inanimate object, etc., etc.; in case it is necessary
to identify the pronoun, author also should mark in the
source text the concrete
contextual word (c.w.) which replace this pronoun.
The
some pronouns in Russian.
1)
The polysemy of pronoun себя (see
Table) [12].
This
reflexive pronoun has many meanings, which, for example, in English correspond to: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself,
ourselves, yourselves, themselves, oneself.
a) The source text (Russian): Он сказал мне, что следует злиться
не
столько на других, сколько на себя.
(this
complex sentence have no subject in subordinate clause; as a whole, this complex sentence may express
the different sources of action; it is necessary to take into account, choosing one of
the meanings of reflexive pronoun себя)
The
author marks in section (morphm) the different meanings depending on general
sense:
- the source of action is Он: (a) он, его, ему…;
- …”… is мне (male): (a) я, меня, мне…;
- …”… is an indefinite person: (f).
As a result, the following variants
of coded texts and their machine translations into English
are received:
| Он сказал мне, что следует …
на себя{себя ... (morphm) (a) он, его, ему… / (a) я, меня, мне… / (f)}.
♦ (a) он, его, ему… He has told me he should
be angry not so much with
others, how many on himself.
♦ (a) я,
меня, мне…He has told me I should …”… on
myself.
♦ (f) He has told me one
should …”… on
oneself.
♦♦ He
has told me it is necessary …”… others, how many
on itself(?). |
As we see, the subprogram has transformed the sentence depending on concrete meaning
of reflexive
pronoun,
namely, added to the subordinate clause the formal
subject: he … himself / I … myself /
one …
oneself.
The
usual program MT uses only neutral form of subject and reflexive
pronoun – it … itself.
b) The source text (Russian): Вы рассказываете нам о спутниках и мало о себе.
(this
sentence may also express the different sources of action;
it is also necessary to take into account, choosing one
of the meanings of reflexive
pronoun себя)
The author marks in section (morphm) the different meanings depending
on general sense:
- the source of action is Вы (people): (a) вы, вас…
- …”… is Вы (people, female): (b)
вы, вас…
- …”… is Вы (person, male, politely): (c)
Вы, Вас…
- …”… is Вы (person, female, politely): (d) Вы, Вас…
As a result, the following variants
of coded texts and their machine translations into English
are received:
| Вы рассказываете нам о … и мало о себе{себя … (morphm) (a) вы, вас… / (b) вы, вас… / (c) Вы, Вас… / (d) Вы, Вас…}.
♦ (a,b) вы, вас… You tell us about travel companions and a little about yourselves.
♦ (c,d) Вы, Вас… You tell us …”… about yourself.
♦♦ You tell us …”… about yourselves. |
In contrast to
English, Hebrew has the separate forms of pronouns of
masculine / feminine gender for first, second, third person
in singular / plural number and has also the separate
forms of verbs connected with pronouns [11, 11*]; therefore
the last phrase has separate forms of translations into
Hebrew (it is possible to tell, more differentiated forms):
| Вы рассказываете нам … и мало о себе{себя … (morphm) (a) вы, вас… / (b) вы, вас… / (c) Вы, Вас… / (d) Вы, Вас…}.
אתם מספרים לנו
על בני לוויין
שלכם אבל
מְעַט על
עַצְמְכֶם
(a) ♦←
אתן מספרות
..."... שלכן ..."... עַצְמְכֶן(b) ♦
אתה
מספר ..."... שלךָ ..."... עַצְמְךָ (c) ♦
את מספרת ..."... שלָך
..."... עַצְמְך(d) ♦
אתם
מספרים ..."...
שלכם ..."... עַצְמְכֶם(?) ♦♦ |
The all examples presented
above have shown, that the usual program of MT can incorrectly
estimate with what source of action the reflexive pronoun
is connected.
| Russian c.e.d.
себя (себе, собой,-ю, о себе) указывает на отношение действия к самому
источнику действия (подлежащ.), соответствуя по
смыслу личн. мест. любых лица, р. и ч.[5]
(morphm) ист. действия: (a) лицо,
группа лиц м. или м. и ж. пола: я, меня, мне…;
ты, тебя…; он, его. ему…; мы, нас…; вы, вас…; они, их… (b) лицо, группа
лиц ж. пола: я, меня, мне…;
ты, тебя…; она, её…;
мы, нас…; вы, вас…; они, их… (c) лицо м. рода
(уважит. форма): Вы, Вас…
(d) … ж. рода (уважит. форма):
Вы, Вас… (e) неодуш. предм. или животное неопр. пола (f) неопред.-личная ф.
|
Russian-English c.b.d.
себя … my|self; your~; him~; her~; it~;
our|selves; your~; them~; oneself; me; him; her; us; you; them
(morphm) (a) я, меня … my|self; ты, тебя … your~; он, его … him~; мы, нас … our|selves; вы, вас … your~; они, их … them~ (b) я, меня … my|self; ты, тебя … your~; она, её … her~; мы, нас … our|selves; вы, вас … your~; они, их…them~ (c, d) yourself
(e) itself (f)oneself |
Russian-Hebrew c.b.d. [11*]
себя
(אָת
לֽ- בֽ-
מֵ- עַל)
עַצֽמִי
עַצמְךָ
עַצמֵךְ
עַצמוֹ עַצמָה
עַצמֵנוּ
עַצמְכֶם
עַצמְכֶן עַצמָם
עַצמָן עֶצֶם
אִתִי אִתְךָ...עִמִי
עִמְךָ...
(morphm) (a) я, меня…עַצֽ|מִי; ты,
тебя…~מְךָ;
он, его …~מוֹ; мы, нас … ~מֵנוּ; вы, вас… ~מְכֶם;
они, их ~מָם (b) я, меня…מִי~; ты, тебя… מֵךְ~;
она, её… עַצֽמָה; мы, нас…
מֵנוּ~; вы, вас…מְכֶן~; они, их…
מןָ~ (c) מְךָ~ (d)מֵךְ
~ (e) מוֹ~ (f)
עֶצֶם
|
2) The polysemy of pronoun он.
The
pronoun он, его … can point at both person and
inanimate object; it is necessary to take into account,
translating into English, which has two separate forms
… he;
it:
| Russian c.e.d.
он (его, ему, им, о нём, …) указывает
на лицо, не являющееся
ни говорящим, ни собеседником, или на неодушевл. предм.
речи [5]
(morphm) (а) ~ указывает на лицо (b) ~ указывает на неодуш.
предмет или на животное неопр. пола |
Russian-English c.b.d.
он … he; it
(morphm) (а)
he
(b) it |
The source text (Russian): … она
пыталась погасить пламя и не дать ему пострадать.
(in one case it is a question of the child, and in other
- about the house)
The author has marked in an entry the meaning corresponding
to sense of a context:
| …
она пыталась … не дать ему{он, его, ему, … (morphm) (а) / (b)} пострадать.
(translations
into English)
♦…she tried to extinguish a flame
and to not allow (a) him/ (b) it to suffer.
♦♦ … ”
… it to suffer. |
The
usual program MT uses only neutral meaning of pronoun он.
3) The polysemy of pronoun твой, ваш.
The pronouns
твой, ваш
can express belonging both to person of masculine gender
(to group of person) and to person of feminine gender
(to group of person of feminine gender). In contrast to
Russian, Hebrew has two separate forms of possessive pronoun
depending on gender to
whom a belonging is expressed
…שֶלָכֵם / שֶלָכֵן /
שֶלָךְ / שֶלךָ:
| Russian c.e.d.
твой (твоя…),
ваш (ваша …) принадлежащ.,свойств.
тебе, вам [5]
(morphm)(a)тебе -лицу
м.р.
(b) тебе - лицу ж.р.
(c)
вам - группе лиц
(d) вам - группе
лиц ж.р.
|
Russian-
English c.b.d.
твой …your, yours
(morphm)
(a,b,c,d) … your, yours
|
Russian-Hebrew c.b.d.
твой… שֶלָך / שֶלךָ
ваш… שֶלָכֵם / שֶלָכֵן
(morphm)
(a)…שֶלךָ
(b)… שֶלָך
(c)…שֶלָכֵם
(d)…שֶלָכֵן
|
The source text (Russian): Она
говорит ему - это не твоё дело.
Он говорит ей - это не твоё
дело.
The
encoded text and its translation into Hebrew:
| Она
говорит ему - это не твоё{твой
… (morphm) (a)} дело.
היא אומֶרֶת
לוׁ- זה לא
עניין שֶלךָ ♦
←
Он
говорит ей - это не твоё{твой … (morphm) (b)} дело.
הוּא אומֵר
לָה - זה לא
עניין שֶלָךְ♦
שֶלךָ
…
♦♦ |
The
usual program MT uses only first meaning of pronoun твой.
The
some pronouns in English [6,7].
1) The polysemy of pronoun I.
The personal pronoun I can replace the person
of masculine / feminine gender.
The source text: When
she/ he asked me to marry her/ him I said yes.
I believe her/ him.
The
encoded text and its translation into Hebrew:
The
encoded text and its translation into Russian and Hebrew:
|
When she/ he asked me to marry her/ him
I{I …(morphm)
(a)…to himself / (b)…to herself}
said yes. I believe her/ him.
♦ Когда она/он попроси|ла/-л
меня жениться на ней/выйти за него, я (a)сказал/ (b)-а да. Я (a,b)верю ей/ему.
כַאֲשֶר
הִיא/הוּא
בִקְשַה/בִקֵש
מִמֵנִי
לֽהִתֽחַתֵן
אִיתה/אִיתוֹ,
אֲנִי ♦
(א,ב)אָמַרֽתִי
כֵן.
אֲנִי (א)מַאֲמִינ /
(ב)מַאֲמִינַה
לַה/לוֹ. |
As
we see, in Russian - the gender of the one who speaks
has influence on the form of verb in past tense; in contrast
to Russian, in Hebrew - has influence on the form of verb
in the present tense.
2) The polysemy of pronoun you.
The
source text:
You said you knew the way.
The author marks the different meanings
depending on general sense:
| You{you … (morphm) (a) person m
/ (b) person f / (c) people/
(d) people f} said you knew the way.
(translations into Russian and Hebrew)
♦ (a,b)Ты/
(c,d)вы
(a)сказал/(b)-а/(c,d)-и,
что (a)знал/(b)-а/(c,d)-и
дорогу.
(א)אַתָה/
(ב)אַת/ (ג)אַתֶם/
(ד)אַתֶן אָמַרְתָ/
אָמַרְת/
אָמַרְתֶם/
אָמַרְתֶן♦
שְ|מַכִיר/ -מַכִירָה/
-מַכִירִים/
-מַכִירוֹת
אֶת הדֶרֶך. |
As
we see, the gender and number of person
or people being addressed are reflected in Hebrew
in four separate forms of a pronoun and in different forms
of a verb.
| English c.e.d.
I used by a speaker to refer to himself
or herself [7]
(morphm) (a) to himself: I
said I believe
(b)
to herself: …”… |
English-Russian c.b.d.
I used
by … я
(morphm) (a)…я: Я сказал, что верю (b)… я: Я сказала …”… |
English-Hebrew c.b.d.
I used by… אני
(morphm) (а)…אֲנִי:
אֲנִי אָמַרֽתִי
שמאמין
(b) …
אֲנִי: אֲנִי
אָמַרֽתִי
שמאמינה |
|
you person or people being addressed [6]
(morphm) (a) person m: You
said you believe
(b)
person f: …”…
(c)
people: …”…
(d) people f: …”… |
you person or … ты; вы
(morphm) (a)… ты: Ты сказал…
(b)… ты: Ты сказала, …”…
(c,d)…вы: Вы
сказали … |
you person or...
אַתֶן
/ אַתֶם/ אַת/ אַתָה
(morphm)(a) אַתָה: אַתָה
אָמַרֽתָ שְמַאֲמִין
(b) אָמַרֽת
שְמַאֲמִינַה אַת אַת:
(c)
אתם: אַתֶם אמַרֽתֶם
שְמַאֲמִינִים
(d)
אַתֶן: אַתֶן
אמַרֽתֶן
שְמַאֲמִינוֹת |
References.
4. Кунин А.В. Англо-русский фразеологический
словарь //
Советская энциклопедия, М.:1967. С. 1233 – 1264.
5. Большой толковый словарь
русского языка // Норинт, С.-Петербург:2000.
6. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of current English // Oxford University Press:1989.
7. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of current
English // Clarendon Press Oxford:1995.
8. Oxford Russian Dictionary, Russian-English,
English-Russian // Oxford University Press: 2000.
9. Рымашевская
Э.Л., Немецко-русский и русско-немецкий словарь // Русский
язык, М.:1990.
9* Langenscheidts Taschenwörterbuch
Russisch (Russisch - Deutsch, Deutsch – Russisch), Langenscheidt.
10. Смирницкий А.И. и др., Большой русско-английский
словарь// Русский язык, М.:2002.
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язык, М.:1992.
11*. Склонение предлогов и др. частей речи с помощью местоименных
суффиксов // Дфус Эфи, Т.-А.:1992 11**. The
Concise Sapphire Dictionary. Editor in Chief: Eitan Avneyon
//Israel: 1997
11***. The Сomplete Hebrew – English Dictionary by Reuben
Alcalay // Massada Publishing Co. Ramat-Gan-Jerusalem
12. Качалова К.Н., Израилевич Е.Е. Практическая грамматика
английского языка // М.:1999.С.72-76, 113-162, 166-184,
214-216, § 131, 279-287, 439-445
13. Циммерман М., Веденеева К. Русско – английский научно – технический
словарь переводчика // Наука, М.: 1999. С.50, 340,509
14. Langenscheidts Großwärterbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache //Neubearbeitung, 1998.
15. Мюллер В.К., Англо – русский словарь. // Золотой век, Диамант, С.-П.:2000
